Orthodox Monasticism

Orthodox monasticism has taken various forms in its long history, from the simple anchorites[1] who first appeared in the deserts of Egypt and Palestine, to the large coenobiums (priories) and monastic communities that were under the so-called Canons of St. Pachomius or St. Basil.

The life of a hermit (also called a hesychast in the East from the concept of silence (hesychia), that is, spiritual silence and rest) is a life of constant ‘monologue prayer’. “May the memory of Jesus unite with your spirit”, St. John of Climacus wrote in the 7th century, “and then know the benefits of silence.” As a citizen of the Kingdom of Heaven, the monk is in constant communion with his Lord, repeating continuously and without interruption, either at work or in his sleep, a short prayer in which he invokes the name of Jesus Christ. Sometimes it is “Lord, have mercy” and sometimes “Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy”. Sometimes again he interprets and applies the words of St. John of Climacus literally and repeats the prayer rhythmically with his breath. He seeks the Kingdom of God “within himself” since the Baptism and the Eucharist give every Christian the privilege of being able to live in Christ and to receive in his heart the gift of the Holy Spirit. From the hesychasts will come great Orthodox neptics[2], such as Saint Maximus the Confessor (7th century), Saint Symeon the New Theologian (11th century) and Saint Gregory of Sinai (14th century). In the 14th century, the hesychasts, with St. Gregory Palamas, Archbishop of Thessaloniki, prominent among them, would emerge as the main defenders of Orthodoxy against the corrupting, destructive influences of a philosophical school that denied the possibility of any true communion with God from here on earth. This confrontation offered St. Gregory Palamas the opportunity to receive synodical approval (1341, 1347, 1351) of his theological formulations, which proclaim the absolute, genuine reality of communion with God, which is potentially granted to every Christian member of the Church.

Apart from the hesychastic movement, the Christian East was also familiar with another type of anchoritic life, which came to be considered classical in the West, namely that of the large monastic community, the coenobium, living under obedience and on the basis of typikon[3], centered around the liturgical life. Saint Pachomios and especially Saint Basil the Great, Bishop of Caesarea, provided monks of all times with a series of regulations in the famous Canons, which are distinguished by an astonishing vitality. And Saint Theodore of Stoudios, abbot of the famous Stoudios monastery in Constantinople, who defended Orthodoxy against the iconoclasts (9th century), was the most important of those who codified these regulatory provisions of monastic life in the Byzantine tradition. Stoudite monks were subordinate to an abbot and divided their time between the church, the refectory and work. The form of the Byzantine Divine Liturgy and the style of Byzantine hymnography were perfected in the context of such coenobiums and took their final structure. The work of earlier hymn writers, such as the great sixth-century ecclesiastical poet St. Romanus the Melodist, was incorporated into the divine services. Byzantine hymnography has retained this source of inspiration and form to this day, even though it is no longer an exclusively monastic affair, but has been adopted by the whole Church.

The Byzantine Church was, therefore, familiar with both the hesychastic and the coenobitic (“common life”) forms of monastic life, and indeed both continue to exist to this day. And although at times some conflicts have negatively affected and marred relations between them, the two forms have nevertheless managed to work together in harmony. The great monasteries occasionally gave out neptic fathers capable of practicing in the palaestra (wrestling ring) of the purest form of silence and at the same time continuing to conform to the common rules and obligations of coenobitic life. St John of Climacus, for example, was abbot of the great Monastery of St Catherine of Mount Sinai; the hesychastic movement flourished even within the Monastery of Stoudios in the 10th and 11th centuries in the person of St Symeon the Pious and St Symeon the New Theologian. Monastic self-governing communities and states, such as Mount Athos, Mount Olympus in Bithynia (Asia Minor) or Mount of St. Auxentius in Bithynia, allowed the coexistence of majestic monastic communities side by side with hermit cells of the hesychastic tradition. Initially, of course, all the monks of Mount Athos were anchorites – but afterward, Saint Athanasius of Athos founded the first great Lavra (10th century) and later the whole wider area was divided into self-governing monasteries under the supervision of a central monastic administration, the Holy Synod of Mount Athos in Protaton4[4]. However, the various statutes of the monasteries in force (which have been amended from time to time) have always allowed for the existence of sketes5[5] and cells in which hesychasts devote themselves to “pure, noetic prayer” (prayer of the heart).

However, the typika of monastic communities also provide for the exercise of the prayer of Jesus by the monks.

Thus, while Byzantine monasticism has shown an astonishing unity of purpose and sources of inspiration, it has also been prudent enough to allow for different ways in which the individual temperament of each monk, whether living separately or in community, can be expressed, the monk bears witness and foretells the Kingdom of the Future. The ministry of his monastic form has a charismatic character destined to serve the Church and the world. It is interesting to note in this regard that the Church has always refused to allow tendencies that would isolate monks from the Church and imply that their mission is essentially different and superior to that of other Christians. From the point of view of sacred norms, the monasteries of the Orthodox Church are always subject to the local bishop and are therefore integrally integrated into the life of the episcopal region. The Eastern Church has never recognized religious orders that were by any canon law “exempt” from episcopal control. Byzantine monasticism is therefore called upon to carry out its special mission within the Church and for her sake.

[1] translator’s note: Anchorite: Someone who, for religious reasons, withdraws from secular society so as to be able to lead an intensely prayer-oriented, ascetic, or Eucharist-focused life. From Ancient Greek: ἀναχωρητής (anakhōrētḗs, “anchoret”), from ἀναχωρέω (anakhōréō, “I withdraw, retire”)

[2] translator’s note: Neptics: orthodox monks and theologians who developed Neptic theology: movement of orthodox Christian theology and ascetic experience, the spiritual content of which is unceasing prayer, continuous spiritual exercise, sincere repentance and unfailing ablution and purification for a virtuous life. Nepsis: It means wakefulness or watchfulness and constitutes a condition of sobriety acquired following a period of catharsis. St. Hesychios the Priest defines nepsis as “a continual fixing and halting of thought at the entrance to the heart.”

[3] translator’s note: Typikon: is a liturgical book which contains instructions about the order of the Byzantine Rite office and variable hymns of the Divine Liturgy. Typika arose within the monastic movements of the early Christian era to regulate life in monasteries and several surviving typika from Constantinople, such as those of the Pantokrator monastery and the Kecharitomene nunnery, give us an insight into ancient Byzantine monastic life and habits.

[4] translator’s note: The Protaton, also known as the Dormition of the Theotokos Church, is the main church of Karyes, Mount Athos. It also serves as the ecclesiastical seat of the Protos, or the primate of the monastic community of Mount Athos. It was founded in the early 10th century AD, prior to the completion of the Great Lavra in 963.

[5] translator’s note: A skete is a monastic community in Eastern Christianity that allows relative isolation for monks, but also allows for communal services and the safety of shared resources and protection. It is one of four types of early monastic orders, along with the heremitic, lavritic and coenobitic. Skete communities usually consist of a number of small cells or caves that act as the living quarters with a centralized church or chapel. These communities are thought of as a bridge between strict heremitic lifestyle and communal lifestyles since it was a blend of the two.